Extra material delivered in class

Handout 1 : Sentence fragments

What is a sentence fragment?

A sentence fragment is a group of words that looks like a sentence, but it is not. A capital letter begins the group of words, and a period ends it. But between them some necessary parts have been felt out or put in a wrong form, resulting in a fragment.

Here are some examples of fragments:

      The skinniest boy in town.     
      When my mother was in high school.

      The girl who wears glasses.

All these examples look like sentence. All begin with capital letter and end with a period. And they all give information. Some of them even have subject and a predicate. But none of them is complete.

Here you are going to see some other examples that seem to have sense but as you read them they do not convey any meaning. Fragments often confuse the reader.

      Fragment:   John gave a report on Louis Agassiz. The well-known naturalist and teacher.

      Revised:      John gave a repot on Louis Agassiz, the well-known naturalist and teacher.

      Fragment:  Then the two boys out the puppy in box. And hid the box in the basement.

      Revised:      Then the two boys out the puppy in box and hide the box in the basement.

What is wrong with a sentence fragment?

They seem improvised and arbitrary, and as if the writer could only know and then from a complete thought. Though sentence fragments can sometime enhace a passage, thet are just as like as to break it into disconnected pieces. For this reason, they are not acceptable in college essays, and you should avoid them.

Charlie smiled self-consciusly. Like a politician before a camera.

Soon I began to work for the company. Firs in the rock pit snd later in the highway.

She will have a chance to go home next weekend. And to meet his new stepfathers.

Astronauts venturing deep into space may not come back for fifty days. Returning only to discover an uninhabitable planet.

I tried to read the directions. Which were confusing and absurd.
He lost the golden watch. The one which had belonged to his grandfather.

Is a term describing two independent clauses with are joined together with no connecting word or punctuation to separate the clauses.

When you use a comma to connect two independent clauses, it must be accompanied by a little conjunction (FANBOYS). (e.g: The sun is high, so put some sunblock.)

A rambling sentence may be defined as any sentence that is exceedingly long, and  contains too many independent clauses.

Rambling sentences tend to contain coordinating conjunctions (i.e. and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet), or words that connect independent thoughts to one another.

Rambling sentences are often confused with sentences that contain comma splices.

Example One: Sentence containing a Comma Splice 

''I saw a bear lumbering through the woods, it was crashing and thrashing through 

the brush. ''

Example Two: Sentence containing three Comma Splices 

I saw a bear lumbering through the woods, the air smelled like pine, as I listened I could hear him breathing, he was giant. 

Example Three:  Rambling Sentence 

I saw a bear lumbering through the woods, and the air smelled like pine, but as I listened I could hear him breathing, and he was giant.

Example Four:   Rambling sentence containing one Comma Splice 

I saw a bear lumbering through the woods, and the air smelled like pine, but then as I listened I could hear him breathing, he was giant.

Example:

the first thing to do is take out all the coordinating conjunctions that separate complete , distinct thoughts, and the replace them with periods.

Contains a necessary words and phrases that add nothing to the meaning of a sentences

Repeat the same idea -Make statements without supporting them

THIS SENTENCE LACKS LOGIC BECAUSE IT SAYS THAT THE FIRST CASE OF SMALLPOX HAS GONE UNCHECKED UNTIL RECENTLY.

Mixed Constructions

Principle: Expressions of similar content and function are outwardly similar. 

When we use the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance 

Gerunds and Infinitives:

When talking to the group, he spoke sincerely and passionately. 

When talking to the group, he spoke with sincerity and passion. 

_or_

The couch told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do some warm-up exercises before the game.

Spotting and correcting sentences.

A fragment occurs when you do these things:    
 You begin a group of words with capital letter.

You conclude this group of words with an end mark- either a period (.), question mark (?), or exclamation point (!).

 You neglect to insert a main clause somewhere between the capital letter at the beginning and the end mark concluding the word group.

The best way to avoid fragments, however, is to recognize the structural differences between sentences and non-sentences. Remember that a complete statement is an independent unit containing at least one subject and predicate.

Types of fragments:

Isolated phrase

Prepositional phrase

Infinitive phrase

Participial phrase

Subordinate clause

Appositive

Handout 2 : Comma Splice and Run-on Sentence

Comma splices are similar to run-on sentences because they also incorrectly connect independent clauses. A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are connected with only a comma. As with a run-on sentence, there are a few different ways to correct a comma splice.

Examples:

Comma splice: My family bakes together nearly every night, we then get to enjoy everything we make together.

Correction 1: My family bakes together nearly every night. We then get to enjoy everything we make together.

The comma splice has been corrected by breaking the sentence into two separate sentences.

Correction 2: My family bakes together nearly every night, and we then get to enjoy everything we make together.

The comma splice has been corrected by adding a coordinating conjunction and a comma.

Correction 3: After my family bakes together nearly every night, we get to enjoy everything we make together.

The comma splice has been corrected by adding a subordinating conjunction and a comma.

Run- on sentence

Incorrect: They weren’t dangerous criminals they were detectives in disguise.

Correct: They weren’t dangerous criminals; they were detectives in disguise.

How to fix a comma splice:

Comma splice: I completed my essay, I have not submitted it.

Run-on sentence: I completed my essay I have not submitted it.

Solution:

1-      Use a period: I completed my essay. I have not submitted it.

2-      Use a semi-colon: I completed my essay; I have not submitted it.

3-      Use a coordinating conjunction: I completed my essay, but I have not submitted it.

4-      Use a subordinating conjunction: I completed my essay, although I have not submitted it.

Run-on sentence:  (Sometime called a “fused sentence”) has at least two parts, either one of which can stand by itself, but he two parts have been smooshed together instead of being properly connected.

When two independent clauses are connected by only a comma, they constitute a run-on sentence that is called a comma splice. (e.g: The sun is high, put some sunblock.)

Handout 3 : Rambling sentences

When a writer chooses to use coordinating conjunction after coordinating conjunction to combine what should be separate sentences, the result almost always is a rambling sentence.

The other day I went to my Grandma’s house and when I was there I ate cookies and crackers and she gave me some soda and then I went outside to pick apples and I felt and scraped my knee so she brought me back inside and helped me wash it out and it didn’t hurt at all.

How to fix it:

The other day I went to my Grandma’s house. When I was there I ate cookies and crackers. She gave me some soda. Then I went outside to pick apples. I felt and scraped my knee. She brought me back inside and helped me wash it out. It didn’t hurt at all.

Once this has been done, the next step is to understand that some of the individual sentences in the newly formed paragraph were originally dependent upon one another. Specially the word “so” in the clause” I felt and scraped my knee so she brought me back inside and helped me wash it out” tells the reader that the second clause (“she brought me back inside and helped me wash it out”) happens as a result of the first one (“I felt and scraped my knee”)

The other day I went to my Grandma’s house. When I was there I ate cookies and crackers. She gave me some soda. Then I went outside to pick apples. I felt and scraped my knee, so she brought me back inside and helped me wash it out. It didn’t hurt at all.

Having learned how to break rambling sentences into sentences that are more precise and exact, it is important to understand that coordinating conjunctions are not merely nasty things hat should be eliminated from a person’s writing, but they have to be used correctly.

Handout 4: Overloaded, Padded and Empty Sentences

Long sentences containing a number of ideas, usually connected by and's, are confusing. Sentences should usually contain only one central thought. Overloaded sentences shuold be broken into smaller sentences.

Avoid sentences that contain more information than the reader can easily follow. Instead, divide such sentences into more manageable pieces that can be easily grasped.

Weak: Because researchers interested in speech synthesis and automatic recognition need to find rules that improve intelligibility of speech, they need to study the psychological determinants more closely before they can solve what has become a complex set of questions.

Improved: Researchers interested in speech synthesis and automatic recognition need to find rules that improve intelligibility of speech. Consequently, they need to study the psychological determinants more closely before they can solve what has become a complex set of questions.

Weak: In response to the leak history of the pipe made of 304-L stainless steel, a work request, IJ-117, was prepared by Plant Maintenance in August of 1989 to replace approximately 55 feet of the HLD 304-L pipe--the entire segment running from the "cells" area to the point in the drainage system that turns south to exit the building--with pipe made of a different material, Iconel 600 (see Figure…).

Improved: Plant Maintenance responded to the leak history of the stainless steel pipe(304-L) with a work request in August 1989 to replace a 55-foot section with Iconel 600 pipe. This section made up the entire pipe segment running from the"cells" area to a point where the drainage system turns south to exit the building (see Figure N).

Lents is often blamed for sentences going awry, but the problem is more complex than that because a long sentence sometime works.

Long sentences can become confusing when:

      WE PUT TOO MUCH INFORMATION IN BRACKETS.

      WE OVERUSE “WHICH” CLAUSES.

       WE MAKE OUR SUBJECTS TOO WORDY.

Padded sentences

Example:  When my family went on vacation, my family went to visit this cave in Arizona where bandits who held up a train hid the loot, which was thousands of dollars of gold coins and other gold. Count how many words this is

Revised: On our vacation my family visited a cave in Arizona where train robbers hid thousands of dollars of gold.

Empty sentences

Example: A freight train is a train that carries freight. Freight trains carry grain, coal, and other goods.

Revised: Trains are a good way to transport goods. Rail trains are efficient because they don’t get delayed in traffic such as trucks.

ADVICE TO REVISED PADDED AND EMPTY SENTENCES

Think about the ideas you want to express Look for unnecessary words and phrases to take out Look for long phrases that don’t tell your reader much. Replace each of those phrases with one or two words.

Handout 5: Mixed an Illogical Constructions

Every part of the sentence must agree with the other parts in some logical way if the meaning of the sentence is to be clear.Types of mistakes are written in parenthesis.Be sure that the subject makes sense in its relationships to the verbs: (LACK OF SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT)

Vague: The first case of smallpox dates back more than a thousand years before the birth of Christ and had gone unchecked until recently. 

Improved: The first case of smallpox dates back more than a thousand years before the birth of Christ, but only recently has the disease been checked.

      Every verb must have a clear-cut subject: (LACK OF CLEAR-CUT SUBJECT)

Vague: With a family to support makes his decision all the more important.

Improved: His having a family to support makes his decision all the more important.

      Avoid mixed construction: (MIXED CONSTRUCTION)

Vague: Despite of what you say, I think you are wrong.

Improved: In despite of what you say, I think you are wrong.  OR

Despite what you say, I think you are wrong.

      Avoid double negatives: (DOUBLE NEGATIVES)

Akward: I can’t hardly see you.

Improved: I can hardly see you.

A mixed construction is a sentence with incompatible elements that begins with one type of structure and shifts to another type of structure. In these sentences, the speaker sets out to say one thing and abruptly switches to something else resulting in confusion.

As a refresher, think of the sentence as a mathematical equation with the following structures:

Subject + predicate = sentence or Phrase + clause = logical connection

These will always make sense as distinct equations. However, one component of an equation is mixed with a component of another equation, the meaning becomes unclear. For example, consider the following revision:

Mixed Construction: Beginning in the fall of 1997, we began to charge students a trash tax, was the responsibility of student government.

Revision: Beginning in the fall of 1997, we began to charge students a trash tax. The student government was responsible for this project.

Handout 6:Faulty Parallelism

What is Parallelism?

In other words:

Where or when does it occur?

•       It occurs at the level of a word, phrase, or clause.

Faulty parallelism:  Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method, while now the laboratory method is employed. 

Revised: Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method; now it is taught by the laboratory method.  

An article or a preposition applying to all the members of a series must either be used only before the first term or else be repeated before each term.

Faulty parallelism:  In spring, summer, or in winter

Revised: In spring, summer or Winter.  OR  (In spring, in summer, or in winter)

(e.g.) I love to run, hike, and swim.

CORRELATIVE CONJUNTIONS: (both – and, not – but, not only – but also, rather -  than, either – or, neither – nor, first, second, third) should be followed by the same grammatical construction. 

       

•       Jose is both intelligent and wise.

•       He is not only smart but also athletic.

•       He will either become a doctor or become a lawyer.

•       Neither his mother nor his father have doubts about his success.

•       He would rather study medicine than study law.

When making comparisons the things you compare should be couched in parallel structures whenever that is possible and appropriate.

Faulty parallelism:  My income is smaller than my wife.

Revised: My income is smaller than my wife’s.

WORDS AND PHRASES

Faulty parallelism:  Fidel likes hiking, swimming and to drive his car.

Revised:

•       Fidel likes hiking, swimming and driving his car.

•       Fidel likes to hike, to swim, and to drive his car.

•       Fidel likes to hike, swim, and drive his car.

- Faulty parallelism:   When talking to the group, he spoke sincerely and with passion.

CLAUSES: A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another pattern or changing the voice of the verb will break parallelism.

Not parallel: The couch told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.

Parallel: The couch told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game.

ITEMS IN A LIST OR SERIES (THREE OR MORE)

      NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, VERBS, PHRASES

Kevin likes to study, read, and write.

I have pens, pencils, erasers, and notebooks in my desk.

LISTS AFTER A COLON:

The dictionary can be used to find these: word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and looking up irregular verbs.

The dictionary can be used to find these: word meanings, pronunciations, correct spelling, and irregular verbs.

USING PARALLEL STRUCTIRES IN YOUR WRITING WILL HELP WITH

      Economy

      Clarity
      Equality

Handout 7-8 Misplaced and dangling modifiers

What is a modifier?  A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause which functions as an adjective or an adverb to describe a word or make its meaning more specific.

WHAT KINDS OF MODIFIERS ARE WE GOING TO STUDY?

ž  MISPLACED MODIFIERS

ž  DANGLING MODIFIERS

ž  SQUINTING MODIFIERS

Misplaced modifiers

Some modifiers, especially simple modifiers — only, just, nearly, barely — have a bad habit of slipping into the wrong place in a sentence. (In the sentence below, what does it mean to "barely kick" something?)

Confusion: He barely kicked that ball twenty yards.

Repair Work: He kicked that ball barely twenty yards.

Many careful writers will insist that "only" be placed immediately before the word or phrase it modifies:

"I only gave him three dollars.”

Some grammarians, however, have argued that such precision is not really necessary, that there is no danger of misreading and that "only" can safely and naturally be placed between the subject and the verb.

"I gave him only three dollars.

  "I only gave him three dollars.”  (You did not do anything else.)

  "I gave him only three dollars.”   (no more money) 

                 

               The example above suggests that a gold man owns a watch.

                    There are several kinds of misplaced modifiers:

1. Misplaced adjectives: They are incorrectly separated from the nouns they modify and almost always distort the intended meaning.

ž  Example:  

Correct the error by placing the adjective next to the noun it modifies.

   Corrected: 

ž  2. Placement of adverbs can also change

       For example, the sentences below illustrate how the placement of just can change the sentence's meaning.

Just means only John was picked, no one else.

Just means that John was picked now

Just means that John hosted only the program, nothing else

3. Misplaced phrases  may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a meaning that does not make sense.

                         correct:

ž  4. Misplaced clauses may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a meaning that does not make sense.
(a buttered woman?) Example 1.

correct:

Dangling modifier

dan·gling: /ˈdaNGɡliNG/ 

Adjective:hanging or swinging loosely.

Example: "a pair of dangling earrings"

ž A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause that is not clearly and logically related to the word or words it modifies  (i.e. is placed next to).

Two notes about dangling modifiers:

ž  Unlike a misplaced modifier, a dangling modifier cannot be corrected
by simply moving it to a different place in a sentence.

ž  In most cases, the dangling modifier appears at the beginning of the
sentence, although it can also come at the end.

  Sometimes the dangling modifier error occurs because the sentence fails to specify anything to which the modifier can refer.  

ž  EXAMPLE:

This sentence means that my mother enrolled in medical when she was nine years old!

At other times the dangling modifier is placed next to the wrong noun or noun substitute.

Because of the placement of walking to the movies, this sentence suggests that the cloudburst is walking to the movies even though a possible walker - Jim - is mentioned later.

Hoe to correct dangling modifiers

   Dangling modifiers may be corrected in two general ways:

ž    Correction Method #1:

ž  1. Leave the modifier as it is.

ž  2. Change the main part of the sentence so that it begins with the term actually modified.  

ž  3. This change will put the modifier next to the term it modifies. 

Now the sentence means that I was looking toward the west.

Using the same method…

   This dangling modifier may be connected to

Now the sentence means that Jim was drenched by the cloudburst.

Correction #2

Change the dangling modifier phrase to a subordinate clause, creating a subject and verb.

2. Leave the rest of the sentence as it is.

 Example:

ž  Now the sentence means that I  (not my mother!) was nine years old when my mother enrolled in medical school.

SQUINTING MODIFIERS

ž  What Is a Squinting Modifier? (with Examples)

A squinting modifier is a modifier (usually an adverb) which could feasibly modify the words before it or the words after it. A squinting modifier is a type of misplaced modifier.

EXAMPLE: 

Cycling up hills quickly strengthens your quadriceps.

In this example, the adverb quickly is a squinting modifier.
 It is unclear 

whether quickly pertains to Cycling up hills or strengthens.)Taking a moment to think clearly improves your chances.

(In this example, the adverb clearly is a squinting modifier. It is unclear whether it belongs to think or improves.)